References

Pollination as Commons

The Natural History of Pollination

• Ollerton, J. (2017). Pollinators & Pollination: Nature and Society. Pelagic Publishing.
• Ollerton, J., Winfree, R., & Tarrant, S. (2011). How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals? Oikos, 120(3), 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., Dicks, L. V., Garibaldi, L. A., Hill, R., Settele, J., & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Summary for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/spm_deliverable_3a_pollination_20170222.pdf
• Goulson, D. (2010). Bumblebees: Behaviour, Ecology, and Conservation. Oxford University Press.
• Heinrich, B. (2004). Bumblebee Economics (Rev. Ed.). Harvard University Press.

Pre-Industrial Agricultural Landscapes

• Benton, T. G., Vickery, J. A., & Wilson, J. D. (2003). Farmland biodiversity: Is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18(4), 182–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00011-9
• Carvell, C., Meek, W. R., Pywell, R. F., Goulson, D., & Nowakowski, M. (2007). Comparing the efficacy of agri‐environment schemes to enhance bumble bee abundance and diversity on arable field margins. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01249.x
• Kremen, C., Williams, N. M., & Thorp, R. W. (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(26), 16812–16816. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.262413599

Early Managed Pollination, From Wild Harvest to Domestication

• Crane, E. (1999). The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting. Routledge.
• Velthuis, H. H. W., & van Doorn, A. (2006). A century of advances in bumblebee domestication and the economic and environmental aspects of its commercialization for pollination. Apidologie, 37(4), 421–451. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2006019
• Free, J. B. (1993). Insect Pollination of Crops (2nd Ed.). Academic Press.

The Ecological and Economic Value of Pollination as a Public Good

• IPBES. (2016). The assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators
• Garibaldi, L. A., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Winfree, R., Aizen, M. A., Bommarco, R., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., Carvalheiro, L. G., Harder, L. D., & others. (2013). Wild pollinators enhance fruit set of crops regardless of honey bee abundance. Science, 339(6127), 1608–1611. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1230200
• Ricketts, T. H., Regetz, J., Steffan‐Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., Bogdanski, A., Gemmill‐Herren, B., Greenleaf, S. S., Klein, A. M., Mayfield, M. M., Morandin, L. A., Ochieng, A., & Viana, B. F. (2008). Landscape effects on crop pollination services: Are there general patterns? Ecology Letters, 11(5), 499–515. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01157.x

Mechanisms by Which Biodiversity Ensured System Resilience

• Winfree, R., Williams, N. M., Dushoff, J., & Kremen, C. (2007). Native bees provide insurance against ongoing honey bee losses. Ecology Letters, 10(11), 1105–1113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01110.x
• Blüthgen, N., & Klein, A. M. (2011). Functional complementarity and specialisation: The role of biodiversity in plant–pollinator interactions. Basic and Applied Ecology, 12(4), 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2010.11.001
• Memmott, J., Waser, N. M., & Price, M. V. (2004). Tolerance of pollination networks to species extinctions. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271(1557), 2605–2611. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.2909

Early Warnings

• Biesmeijer, J. C., Roberts, S. P., Reemer, M., Ohlemüller, R., Edwards, M., Peeters, T., Schaffers, A. P., Potts, S. G., Kleukers, R., Thomas, C. D., Settele, J., & Kunin, W. E. (2006). Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science, 313(5785), 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127863
• Goulson, D., Nicholls, E., Botías, C., & Rotheray, E. L. (2015). Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers. Science, 347(6229), 1255957. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255957
• Klein, A. M., Vaissière, B. E., Cane, J. H., Steffan‐Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., & Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1608), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721

The Green Revolution, Monoculture, and the Birth of Pollination Services

Monoculture and Pollination Services

• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2024). The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2024. https://www.fao.org/
• Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators
• U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). (2024). National Pesticide Use Maps and Seed Treatment Data. https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/
• IUCN. (2023). European Red List of Bees: 2023 update. https://www.iucnredlist.org/
• Goulson, D., Nicholls, E., Botías, C., & Rotheray, E. L. (2015). Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers. Science, 347(6229), 1255957. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255957
• Klein, A. M., Vaissière, B. E., Cane, J. H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., & Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1608), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., Dicks, L. V., Garibaldi, L. A., Hill, R., Settele, J., & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Summary for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/spm_deliverable_3a_pollination_20170222.pdf

The Greenhouse Revolution: Why Tomatoes and Berries Needed Bumblebees

• Velthuis, H. H. W., & van Doorn, A. (2006). A century of advances in bumblebee domestication and the economic and environmental aspects of its commercialization for pollination. Apidologie, 37(4), 421–451. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2006019
• Dogterom, M. H., & Winston, M. L. (1999). Pollination of greenhouse tomatoes by the bumblebee, Bombus occidentalis. Journal of Apicultural Research, 38(1-2), 70–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.1999.11101007
• Inoue, M. N., & Yokoyama, J. (2010). Commercial bumblebee use and its potential impact on native bumblebees in East Asia. Apidologie, 41(1), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido/2009046

Invention and Commercialization of Captive Bumblebee Rearing

• Koppert Biological Systems. (2023). History of bumblebee rearing and commercial pollination. https://www.koppert.com/
• Market Data Forecast. (2025). Global bumblebee pollination box market: 2023–2032 analysis. https://www.marketdataforecast.com/
• Biobest Group. (2024). Bumblebee pollination solutions and industry growth. https://www.biobestgroup.com/

The Rise of Commercial Pollination Services: Winners, Losers, and Agroecosystem Change

• Graystock, P., Yates, K., Darvill, B., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2013). Emerging dangers: Pathogen spillover from commercial to wild bumblebees. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(5), 1207–1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12134
• Kremen, C., Williams, N. M., & Thorp, R. W. (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(26), 16812–16816. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.262413599
• Ollerton, J. (2017). Pollinators & Pollination: Nature and Society. Pelagic Publishing.

Early Signals of Systemic Risk

• Graystock, P., Yates, K., Darvill, B., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2013). Emerging dangers: Pathogen spillover from commercial to wild bumblebees. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(5), 1207–1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12134
• Cameron, S. A., Lozier, J. D., Strange, J. P., Koch, J. B., Cordes, N., Solter, L. F., & Griswold, T. L. (2011). Patterns of widespread decline in North American bumble bees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(2), 662–667. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014743108
• Goulson, D., & Nicholls, E. (2016). The canary in the coalmine: Bees, environmental stress and ecosystem health. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 18, 110–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2016.10.011

Market Structure, Industry Consolidation, and Corporate Control

Market Size and Growth

• Market Data Forecast. (2025). Global pollination services market by type, crop, and region: 2023–2032 analysis. https://www.marketdataforecast.com/
• Research and Markets. (2025). Pollination services global market report 2025–2033. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/
• IBISWorld. (2024). Global Pollination Services Industry Report. https://www.ibisworld.com/
• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2024). Statistical Yearbook: Managed pollination and global crop trends. https://www.fao.org/
• Grand View Research. (2025). Pollination services market size, share & trends analysis report by managed pollinator, crop, and region, 2025–2033. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/
• MarketsandMarkets. (2023). Pollination services market by type (managed bees, wild pollinators), application (fruits, vegetables, nuts), and region—Global forecast to 2032. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/

Major Industry Players and Market Concentration

• Koppert Biological Systems. (2025). Annual report and global operations overview. https://www.koppert.com/
• Biobest Group. (2024). Global pollination services and industry consolidation. https://www.biobestgroup.com/
• Syngenta Group. (2025). Pollination services and digital agriculture integration. https://www.syngenta.com/
• Bayer AG. (2025). Crop science and pollination solutions. https://www.bayer.com/
• Green Methods. (2025). Innovative pollination technologies and international market reach. https://www.greenmethods.com/
• Bioline Agrosciences. (2025). Biological crop protection and pollination. https://www.biolineagrosciences.com/
• BioBee. (2025). Integrated pest and pollination services: Market expansion report. https://www.biobee.com/
• UPL Ltd. (2025). Pollination, crop protection, and strategic partnerships. https://www.upl-ltd.com/

Vertical Integration and Bundled Services

• MarketsandMarkets. (2024). Pollination services: Trends in vertical integration, bundled contracts, and digital hive systems. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/
• Grand View Research. (2025). Proprietary pollinator strains and IoT-enabled hive technology: 2025 industry update. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/
• IBISWorld. (2024). Long-term service agreements and market barriers in commercial pollination. https://www.ibisworld.com/

Barriers to Entry and the Squeeze on Smallholders and Organic Growers

• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2024). Smallholder access to pollination services and regulatory challenges. https://www.fao.org/
• European Commission. (2025). Barriers to entry in agricultural input and service markets: 2025 report. https://ec.europa.eu/
• IPES-Food. (2023). Corporate concentration and the squeeze on organic and small-scale producers. https://ipes-food.org/

Innovation, Technology, and Market Trends

• Research and Markets. (2025). Robotic pollination, IoT, and AI analytics in protected agriculture. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/
• Grand View Research. (2025). Sustainable pollination services and regulatory pressures: Global industry trends. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/
• MarketsandMarkets. (2023). Digital hive integration and AI-driven pollination: Industry pilot projects 2023–2025. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/
• Koppert Biological Systems. (2025). Technology innovation and disease management in commercial pollination. https://www.koppert.com/

Genetic Bottlenecks, Disease Spillover, and Ecological Risk

Genetic Foundations of Commercial Bumblebee Colonies

• Whitehorn, P. R., Tinsley, M. C., Brown, M. J., Darvill, B., & Goulson, D. (2011). Genetic diversity, parasite prevalence and immunity in wild bumblebees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278(1713), 1195–1202. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.1550
• Coppieters, L., Meeus, I., Mommaerts, V., Smagghe, G., & de Graaf, D. C. (2016). Genetic diversity and fitness in commercial and wild bumblebee populations. Conservation Genetics, 17(2), 431–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-015-0787-x
• Williams, P. H., Thorp, R. W., Richardson, L. L., & Colla, S. R. (2014). Bumble Bees of North America: An Identification Guide. Princeton University Press.
• Jaffé, R., Moritz, R. F. A., & Kraus, F. B. (2010). Loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding in commercial bumblebee colonies. Apidologie, 41(5), 632–641. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido/2010027

Pathogen Reservoirs: Nosema, Crithidia, Viruses, and Mites

• Graystock, P., Yates, K., Darvill, B., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2013). Emerging dangers: Pathogen spillover from commercial to wild bumblebees. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(5), 1207–1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12134
• Meeus, I., Brown, M. J. F., De Graaf, D. C., & Smagghe, G. (2011). Effects of invasive parasites on bumble bee declines. Conservation Biology, 25(4), 662–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01707.x
• Fürst, M. A., McMahon, D. P., Osborne, J. L., Paxton, R. J., & Brown, M. J. F. (2014). Disease associations between honeybees and bumblebees as a threat to wild pollinators. Nature, 506(7488), 364–366. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12977
• Manley, R., Boots, M., & Wilfert, L. (2015). Emerging viral disease risk to pollinating insects: Ecological, evolutionary and anthropogenic factors. Journal of Applied Ecology, 52(2), 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12385

Evidence and Mechanisms of Disease Spillover

• Graystock, P., Yates, K., Darvill, B., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2013). Emerging dangers: Pathogen spillover from commercial to wild bumblebees. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(5), 1207–1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12134
• Cameron, S. A., Lozier, J. D., Strange, J. P., Koch, J. B., Cordes, N., Solter, L. F., & Griswold, T. L. (2011). Patterns of widespread decline in North American bumble bees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(2), 662–667. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014743108
• Inoue, M. N., Yokoyama, J., & Washitani, I. (2008). Displacement of Japanese native bumblebees by the recently introduced Bombus terrestris. Ecological Research, 23(5), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-007-0447-9
• Otterstatter, M. C., & Thomson, J. D. (2008). Does pathogen spillover from commercially reared bumble bees threaten wild pollinators? PLoS ONE, 3(7), e2771. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002771

Consequences for Wild Bumblebee Species

• Jaffé, R., Moritz, R. F. A., & Kraus, F. B. (2010). Loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding in commercial bumblebee colonies. Apidologie, 41(5), 632–641. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido/2010027
• Inoue, M. N., Yokoyama, J., & Washitani, I. (2008). Displacement of Japanese native bumblebees by the recently introduced Bombus terrestris. Ecological Research, 23(5), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-007-0447-9
• Goulson, D. (2010). Bumblebees: Behaviour, Ecology, and Conservation. Oxford University Press.

Ecological Knock-On Effects

• Vanbergen, A. J., & the Insect Pollinators Initiative. (2013). Threats to an ecosystem service: Pressures on pollinators. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(5), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1890/120126
• Memmott, J., Waser, N. M., & Price, M. V. (2004). Tolerance of pollination networks to species extinctions. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271(1557), 2605–2611. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.2909
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., Dicks, L. V., Garibaldi, L. A., Hill, R., Settele, J., & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Summary for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/spm_deliverable_3a_pollination_20170222.pdf

Agrochemical Synergy, Monoculture Lock-in, and the Political Economy of Decline

The Chemical-Pollinator Corporate Complex

• Howard, P. H. (2021). Concentration and Power in the Food System: Who Controls What We Eat? (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic.
• IPES-Food. (2017). Too Big to Feed: Exploring the Impacts of Mega-Mergers, Concentration, and Power in the Agri-Food Sector. International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems. https://ipes-food.org/reports/too-big-to-feed
• Clapp, J. (2021). Food, Power, and Globalization: Who Controls the World Food System? Polity.
• Koppert Biological Systems. (2025). Vertical integration and pollination service bundling: Industry update. https://www.koppert.com/
• Syngenta Group. (2025). Integrated crop protection and pollination solutions. https://www.syngenta.com/
• Bayer AG. (2025). Pollination services and agrochemical partnerships. https://www.bayer.com/

Neonicotinoids, Fungicides, and Sublethal Effects

• U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). (2024). National pesticide use maps and seed treatment data. https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/
• Stanley, D. A., Smith, K. E., & Raine, N. E. (2015). Bumblebee learning and memory is impaired by chronic exposure to a neonicotinoid pesticide. Scientific Reports, 5, 16508. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16508
• Woodcock, B. A., Isaac, N. J., Bullock, J. M., Roy, D. B., Garthwaite, D. G., Crowe, A., & Pywell, R. F. (2017). Impacts of neonicotinoid use on long-term population changes in wild bees in England. Nature Communications, 8, 12459. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12459
• Goulson, D. (2013). An overview of the environmental risks posed by neonicotinoid insecticides. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(4), 977–987. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12111
• Sanchez-Bayo, F., & Goka, K. (2014). Pesticide residues and bees—A risk assessment. PLoS ONE, 9(4), e94482. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094482

Regulatory Inertia

• European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2018). Neonicotinoids: Risk assessment update. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/
• European Commission. (2024). Neonicotinoid bans and regulatory loopholes: Implementation report. https://ec.europa.eu/
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2025). Ecological risk assessments for neonicotinoids and fungicides. https://www.epa.gov/
• Rundlöf, M., Andersson, G. K., Bommarco, R., Fries, I., Hederström, V., Herbertsson, L., ... & Smith, H. G. (2015). Seed coating with a neonicotinoid insecticide negatively affects wild bees. Nature, 521(7550), 77–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14420

The Monoculture Trap

• IPBES. (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., ... & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Safeguarding pollinators and their values to human well-being. Nature, 540(7632), 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20588
• Klein, A. M., Vaissière, B. E., Cane, J. H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., & Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1608), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721

Feedback Loops: Self-Reinforcing Dependence

• Howard, P. H. (2021). Concentration and Power in the Food System: Who Controls What We Eat? (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic.
• IPES-Food. (2017). Too Big to Feed: Exploring the Impacts of Mega-Mergers, Concentration, and Power in the Agri-Food Sector. https://ipes-food.org/reports/too-big-to-feed

Socioeconomic Consequences for Farmers, Regions, and Food Systems

• IPES-Food. (2023). Corporate concentration and smallholder exclusion in agriculture: Global analysis. https://ipes-food.org/
• Clapp, J. (2021). Food, Power, and Globalization: Who Controls the World Food System? Polity.
• Benton, T. G., Bailey, R., & Froggatt, A. (2021). The paradox of productivity: How reliance on chemical inputs threatens long-term food system resilience. Chatham House Research Paper. https://www.chathamhouse.org/
• Goulson, D., Nicholls, E., Botías, C., & Rotheray, E. L. (2015). Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers. Science, 347(6229), 1255957. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255957

Commodification, Privatization, and the Enclosure of Ecosystem Services

From Free Commons to Marketized Input: Pollination as a Billable Service

• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., Dicks, L. V., Garibaldi, L. A., Hill, R., Settele, J., & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators
• Kremen, C., Williams, N. M., & Thorp, R. W. (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(26), 16812–16816. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.262413599
• Howard, P. H. (2021). Concentration and Power in the Food System: Who Controls What We Eat? (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic.
• IPES-Food. (2017). Too Big to Feed: Exploring the Impacts of Mega-Mergers, Concentration, and Power in the Agri-Food Sector. International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems. https://ipes-food.org/reports/too-big-to-feed
• IBISWorld. (2024). Pollination services industry report. https://www.ibisworld.com/
• MarketsandMarkets. (2024). Pollination services market by managed pollinator, contract, and region: 2024–2032 analysis. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/
• Market Data Forecast. (2025). Global pollination services market: Pricing, contracts, and regional segmentation 2023–2032. https://www.marketdataforecast.com/
• Benton, T. G., Bailey, R., & Froggatt, A. (2021). The paradox of productivity: How reliance on chemical inputs threatens long-term food system resilience. Chatham House Research Paper. https://www.chathamhouse.org/
• Grand View Research. (2025). Pollination services market size, share & trends analysis report 2025–2033. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/
• Clapp, J. (2021). Food, Power, and Globalization: Who Controls the World Food System? Polity.
• European Commission. (2025). Market access and certification barriers for smallholder and organic farmers. https://ec.europa.eu/
• IPES-Food. (2023). Corporate concentration and smallholder exclusion in agriculture: Global analysis. https://ipes-food.org/
• Shiva, V. (2016). Who Really Feeds the World? The Failures of Agribusiness and the Promise of Agroecology. North Atlantic Books.
• Klein, A. M., Vaissière, B. E., Cane, J. H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S. A., Kremen, C., & Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274(1608), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721

Risk: Governance Gaps, Policy Failure, and Systemic Fragility

Governance Gaps: Lax Biosecurity, Lack of Oversight, and Weak Enforcement

• Graystock, P., Yates, K., Darvill, B., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2013). Emerging dangers: Pathogen spillover from commercial to wild bumblebees. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(5), 1207–1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12134
• Meeus, I., Brown, M. J. F., De Graaf, D. C., & Smagghe, G. (2011). Effects of invasive parasites on bumble bee declines. Conservation Biology, 25(4), 662–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01707.x
• Fürst, M. A., McMahon, D. P., Osborne, J. L., Paxton, R. J., & Brown, M. J. F. (2014). Disease associations between honeybees and bumblebees as a threat to wild pollinators. Nature, 506(7488), 364–366. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12977
• Vanbergen, A. J., & the Insect Pollinators Initiative. (2013). Threats to an ecosystem service: Pressures on pollinators. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(5), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1890/120126
• Cameron, S. A., Lozier, J. D., Strange, J. P., Koch, J. B., Cordes, N., Solter, L. F., & Griswold, T. L. (2011). Patterns of widespread decline in North American bumble bees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(2), 662–667. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014743108
• Inoue, M. N., Yokoyama, J., & Washitani, I. (2008). Displacement of Japanese native bumblebees by the recently introduced Bombus terrestris. Ecological Research, 23(5), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-007-0447-9
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., Dicks, L. V., Garibaldi, L. A., Hill, R., Settele, J., & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators
• FAO. (2024). Global review of biosecurity protocols for managed pollinators. https://www.fao.org/
• Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2015). Mitigating the anthropogenic spread of bee parasites to protect wild pollinators. Biological Conservation, 191, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.06.023

Industry Self-Regulation: Conflicts of Interest and Opacity

• Howard, P. H. (2021). Concentration and Power in the Food System: Who Controls What We Eat? (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic.
• IPES-Food. (2017). Too Big to Feed: Exploring the Impacts of Mega-Mergers, Concentration, and Power in the Agri-Food Sector. https://ipes-food.org/
• European Commission. (2025). Regulatory frameworks and self-regulation in agricultural input markets: 2025 analysis. https://ec.europa.eu/

Policy Inertia and Misallocated Subsidies

• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., ... & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Summary for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/spm_deliverable_3a_pollination_20170222.pdf
• Clapp, J. (2021). Food, Power, and Globalization: Who Controls the World Food System? Polity.
• Benton, T. G., Bailey, R., & Froggatt, A. (2021). The paradox of productivity: How reliance on chemical inputs threatens long-term food system resilience. Chatham House Research Paper. https://www.chathamhouse.org/

Comparative Policy Responses: The Limits of Current Initiatives

• European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2018). Neonicotinoid pesticide risk assessment update. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/
• European Commission. (2024). Neonicotinoid bans and regulatory loopholes: Implementation report. https://ec.europa.eu/
• United States Pollinator Health Task Force. (2025). 2025 progress report on pollinator health. https://www.usda.gov/pollinators
• USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). (2025). Honey bee colony loss survey 2024–2025. https://www.nass.usda.gov/
• IPBES. (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators

Systemic Risks: Disease, Climate, Supply Chains, and Fragility

• Vanbergen, A. J., & the Insect Pollinators Initiative. (2013). Threats to an ecosystem service: Pressures on pollinators. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(5), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1890/120126
• Goulson, D., Nicholls, E., Botías, C., & Rotheray, E. L. (2015). Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers. Science, 347(6229), 1255957. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255957
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., ... & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Safeguarding pollinators and their values to human well-being. Nature, 540(7632), 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20588

Restoration, Reform, and the Future of Pollination

Wild Pollinator Habitat Restoration: Evidence and Best Practices

• Dicks, L. V., Baude, M., Roberts, S. P. M., Phillips, J., Green, M., & Carvell, C. (2015). How much flower-rich habitat is enough for wild pollinators? Answering a key policy question with incomplete knowledge. Ecological Entomology, 40(S1), 22–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12226
• Carvell, C., Meek, W. R., Pywell, R. F., Goulson, D., & Nowakowski, M. (2007). Comparing the efficacy of agri-environment schemes to enhance bumble bee abundance and diversity on arable field margins. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01249.x
• Kremen, C., & M’Gonigle, L. K. (2015). Small-scale restoration in intensive agricultural landscapes supports more specialized and less mobile pollinator species. Journal of Applied Ecology, 52(3), 602–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12418
• Scheper, J., Holzschuh, A., Kuussaari, M., Potts, S. G., Rundlöf, M., Smith, H. G., & Kleijn, D. (2013). Environmental factors driving the effectiveness of European agri-environmental measures in mitigating pollinator loss – a meta-analysis. Ecology Letters, 16(7), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12128
• Pywell, R. F., Warman, E. A., Carvell, C., Sparks, T. H., Dicks, L. V., Bennett, D., ... & Bullock, J. M. (2005). Providing foraging resources for bumblebees in intensively farmed landscapes. Biological Conservation, 121(4), 479–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.06.032
• Winfree, R., Bartomeus, I., & Cariveau, D. P. (2011). Native pollinators in anthropogenic habitats. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 42, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102710-145042
• Kremen, C., Williams, N. M., & Thorp, R. W. (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(26), 16812–16816. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.262413599
• Garibaldi, L. A., Steffan‐Dewenter, I., Winfree, R., Aizen, M. A., Bommarco, R., Cunningham, S. A., ... & Klein, A. M. (2013). Wild pollinators enhance fruit set of crops regardless of honey bee abundance. Science, 339(6127), 1608–1611. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1230200

Integrated Pest and Pollinator Management (IPPM)

• Nicholls, C. I., & Altieri, M. A. (2013). Plant biodiversity enhances bees and other insect pollinators in agroecosystems. A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 33(2), 257–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-012-0092-y
• Gurr, G. M., Wratten, S. D., Landis, D. A., & You, M. (2017). Habitat management to suppress pest populations: Progress and prospects. Annual Review of Entomology, 62, 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035050
• Potts, S. G., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V., Ngo, H. T., Aizen, M., Biesmeijer, J. C., Breeze, T. D., ... & Vanbergen, A. J. (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. IPBES. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators

Cooperative Models, Open-Source Genetics, and Non-Corporate Breeding

• Kleinman, D. L., & Kinchy, A. J. (2007). Against the neoliberal steamroller? The biosafety protocol and the social regulation of agricultural biotechnology. Agriculture and Human Values, 24(2), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-006-9050-7
• Kremen, C., & Miles, A. (2012). Ecosystem services in biologically diversified versus conventional farming systems: Benefits, externalities, and trade-offs. Ecology and Society, 17(4), 40. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05035-170440

Regulatory Reforms That Actually Work

• Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2015). Mitigating the anthropogenic spread of bee parasites to protect wild pollinators. Biological Conservation, 191, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.06.023
• Graystock, P., Yates, K., Darvill, B., Goulson, D., & Hughes, W. O. H. (2013). Emerging dangers: Pathogen spillover from commercial to wild bumblebees. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(5), 1207–1215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12134
• IPBES. (2016). Assessment report on pollinators, pollination and food production. https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators

Visions for a Post-Commodification Future and Synthesis

• Shiva, V. (2016). Who Really Feeds the World? The Failures of Agribusiness and the Promise of Agroecology. North Atlantic Books.
• Altieri, M. A., & Nicholls, C. I. (2020). Agroecology: Science and Politics. Practical Action Publishing.
• Kremen, C., & M’Gonigle, L. K. (2015). Small-scale restoration in intensive agricultural landscapes supports more specialized and less mobile pollinator species. Journal of Applied Ecology, 52(3), 602–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12418