References

Unequal Investment in Resilience Infrastructure

• Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2024). Benefit-Cost Analysis toolkit and methodology guide [Grant guidance]. https://www.fema.gov/grants/tools/benefit-cost-analysis
• Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2023, October). Cost-Effectiveness and Benefit-Cost Analysis Technical Assistance for Communities [Technical assistance]. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_hma_bric-fma-benefit-cost-analysis_102023.pdf
• FEMA. (2025, June 4). FEMA BCA Toolkit Update: Default discount rate change & social benefit removal [Policy update]. https://www.fema.gov
• Hagerty Consulting. (2022). Recent changes to FEMA’s Benefit-Cost Analysis for mitigation grants [Industry analysis]. https://www.hagertyconsulting.com
• Cano Pecharromán, L., & Hahn, C. (2023, December 6). Exposing disparities in flood adaptation for equitable future interventions [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.03843
• Nicoletti, L., Sirenko, M., & Verma, T. (2022, March 25). Disadvantaged communities have lower access to urban infrastructure [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.12511
• Li, C., Su, X., Fan, C., Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2025, January 14). Bridging financial gaps for infrastructure climate adaptation via integrated carbon markets [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.06212
• Pörtner, H.-O., et al. (2025). Spatial planning and socio-spatial disparities in climate adaptation. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 25, 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1573-2025
• RAND Corporation. (2022). The cost of cost-effectiveness: Expanding equity in federal hazard mitigation programs[Research report]. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA2171-1.html
• Urban Institute. (2021). Equitable climate adaptation requires accounting for disparities in exposure and resources[Policy essay]. https://www.urban.org
• National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2021). New ways to get to high ground [Report]. https://www.nist.gov
• Save the Sound. (2023, June). Expanding FEMA’s Benefit-Cost Analysis [Report]. https://www.savethesound.org
• Center for Climate and Energy Solutions & U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit. (2024). Considerations for Benefit-Cost Analysis [Guidance document]. https://toolkit.climate.gov
• Peck, A. J., Adams, S. L., Armstrong, A., Bartlett, A. K., Bortman, M. L., Brown, M. L., … Smith, E. (2022). A new framework for flood adaptation: Introducing the Flood Adaptation Hierarchy. Ecology and Society, 27(4), 5. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-13538-270405
• Seong, K., Losey, C., & Gu, D. (2021). Naturally resilient to natural hazards? Urban–rural disparities in Hazard Mitigation Grant Program assistance. Housing Policy Debate, 32(1), 190-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2021.1938172
• Coleman, N., Li, X., Comes, T., & Mostafavi, A. (2023, October 29). Weaving equity into infrastructure resilience research and practice: A decadal review and future directions [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.14467
• Coleman, N., Esmalian, A., Lee, C.-C., Gonzales, E., Koirala, P., & Mostafavi, A. (2022, October 25). Energy inequality in climate hazards: Empirical evidence of social and spatial disparities in managed and hazard-induced power outages [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2210.13955

Insurance Withdrawal and Financing Gaps

• American Progress. (2025, April). Managing the climate change–fueled property insurance crisis. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/managing-the-climate-change-fueled-property-insurance-crisis
• PBS NewsHour. (2025, February). What the California wildfire destruction means for homeowners and insurance. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/what-the-california-wildfire-destruction-means-for-homeowners-and-insurance
• Deep Sky Climate. (2025, March). Insurers retreat as 2025 wildfire risk reaches dangerous levels. https://www.deepskyclimate.com/blog/insurers-retreat-as-2025-wildfire-risk-reaches-dangerous-levels
• Congressional Budget Office. (2024, August 27). Climate change, disaster risk, and homeowner’s insurance. https://www.cbo.gov/publication/60674
• Associated Press. (2025, June 12). California insurance market rattled by withdrawal of major companies. https://apnews.com/article/california-wildfire-insurance-e31bef0ed7eeddcde096a5b8f2c1768f
• Nature. (2025, April). The growing void in the U.S. homeowners insurance market. https://www.nature.com/articles/s44168-025-00231-8
• Fox 26 Houston. (2025, January). California insurance crisis: List of carriers that have fled or reduced coverage. https://www.fox26houston.com/news/california-insurance-crisis-list-carriers-have-fled-reduced-coverage-state
• Office of Financial Research. (2023, December 14). Wind, fire, water, hail: What is going on in the property insurance market? https://www.financialresearch.gov/the-ofr-blog/2023/12/14/property-insurance-market
• CBS News. (2024, October). Homes in parts of the U.S. are “essentially uninsurable” due to rising climate risk. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/insurance-policy-california-florida-uninsurable-climate-change-first-street
• Capital Public Radio. (2023, June 21). State Farm and Allstate have pulled out of covering California wildfire insurance: Here’s why. https://www.capradio.org/articles/2023/06/21/state-farm-and-allstate-have-pulled-out-of-covering-california-wildfire-insurance-heres-why
• Geneva Association. (2025, June). Safeguarding home insurance: Reducing exposure and vulnerability to extreme weather. https://www.genevaassociation.org/sites/default/files/2025-06/safeguarding_home_insurance_040625.pdf
• CBS News. (2025, March). Thousands of Los Angeles homeowners were dropped by their insurer after fires. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/fires-california-palisades-fire-homeowners-insurance-state-farm-fair-losses
• Society of Actuaries. (2024, November). Availability, affordability, and adequacy of insurance in areas of climate risk. https://www.soa.org/globalassets/assets/files/resources/research-report/2024/ins-availability-climate-risk-areas.pdf
• Fortune. (2023, October 31). Four more insurers pull out of California. https://fortune.com/2023/10/31/four-insurers-leave-california-wildfire-risk-allstate-state-farm
• University of Colorado Law School. (2024). Climate risk, insurance retreat, and state response. https://scholar.law.colorado.edu/faculty-articles/2648
• Financial Times. (2024, April 29). The crippling home insurance crisis hitting America. https://www.ft.com/content/7745d8ba-d498-4b1c-b877-e42a691b954f
• Barron’s. (2024, August 28). Extreme weather is forcing insurers to grapple with climate change. https://www.barrons.com/articles/gallagher-insurance-ceo-interview-climate-change-f16bb5d5
• Investopedia. (2023, February). Climate change and homeowners: Understanding the risks and solutions. https://www.investopedia.com/climate-change-and-homeowners-8576308
• Associated Press. (2023, August 14). Homeowners face rising insurance rates as climate change makes wildfires, storms more common. https://apnews.com/article/9c7129881f12ec478386e4b47c1acbbc
• Kiplinger. (2025, May). Denied and abandoned: The rise of unregulated insurers and the homeowners left behind. https://www.kiplinger.com/personal-finance/home-insurance/the-rise-of-unregulated-insurers-and-the-homeowners-left-behind
• San Francisco Chronicle. (2025, May). Lawsuit: California home insurers colluded to create an insurance crisis. https://www.sfchronicle.com/california-wildfires/article/home-insurance-lawsuit-20283488.php

Environmental Review, Permitting Gridlock, and Institutional Delay

• Council on Environmental Quality. (2025, January 13). Environmental Impact Statement timelines (2010-2024). https://ceq.doe.gov/docs/nepa-practice/CEQ_EIS_Timeline_Report_2025-1-13.pdf
• National Association of Environmental Professionals. (2024). 2023 annual NEPA report. https://naep.memberclicks.net/assets/annual-report/NEPA_Annual_Report_2023.pdf
• White House Council on Environmental Quality. (2025, January). New data shows Biden-Harris administration improved speed of federal permitting and environmental reviews. https://www.whitehouse.gov/ceq/news-updates/2025/01/13/new-data-shows-biden-harris-administration-improved-speed-of-federal-permitting-and-environmental-reviews
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (2024, September 2). Engineer Regulation 1165-2-217: Civil Works review policy. https://www.publications.usace.army.mil/Portals/76/Publications/EngineerRegulations/ER_1165-2-217.pdf
• Brookings Institution. (2022, September 28). How to reform federal permitting to accelerate clean energy infrastructure. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-to-reform-federal-permitting-to-accelerate-clean-energy-infrastructure-a-nonpartisan-way-forward
• Brookings Institution. (2024). Foresight Africa 2025–2030: Top priorities for the continent. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Foresight-Africa-2025-2030-Full-report.pdf
• Government Accountability Office. (2023). NEPA reviews and permitting delays for climate infrastructure: Federal agency performance metrics FY2020–2022 [Report No. GAO-23-401]. https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-401.pdf
• National League of Cities. (2025). Capacity disparities and permitting timelines: Municipal adaptation readiness across the United States. https://www.nlc.org/resource/capacity-disparities-and-permitting-timelines-2025
• California Legislative Analyst’s Office. (2024). CEQA, climate, and urban resilience: A review of legal barriers. https://lao.ca.gov/reports/2024/ceqa-climate-urban-resilience-barriers
• Urban Institute. (2025). Institutional fragmentation and infrastructure governance: The U.S. adaptation challenge. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/institutional-fragmentation-infrastructure-governance
• McKinsey Infrastructure Advisory. (2025). Private capital and U.S. adaptation: Risk, return, and permitting confidence. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/infrastructure/our-insights/private-capital-and-us-adaptation-2025
• American Public Health Association. (2024). Cumulative trauma and climate exposure: Mental health impacts of delayed resilience infrastructure. https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2024/trauma-and-infrastructure-delay
• U.S. Congress. (2025). Resilient Projects Acceleration Act of 2025 [Proposed legislation]. https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/6845

Resilience Finance Mechanisms and Their Structural Risks

• United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2025). Resilience pays: Financing and investing for our future. https://www.undrr.org/media/106869/download
• CETEx. (2025, February). Financing the unpredictable: Sovereign catastrophe bonds. https://cetex.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Financing-the-unpredicatable_sovereign-catastrophe-bonds_disaster-risk-management.pdf
• Artemis. (2025, May). Cat bonds offer sustainable investment potential amid rising climate risks. https://www.artemis.bm/news/cat-bonds-offer-sustainable-investment-potential-amid-rising-climate-risks-ubs
• Climate Finance Thai. (2025, March). Can new bonds mitigate disaster losses? https://climatefinancethai.com/can-new-bonds-mitigate-disaster-losses
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2025). Scaling up finance and investment for climate change adaptation. https://www.oecd.org/publications/scaling-up-finance-and-investment-for-climate-change-adaptation
• European Central Bank. (2025). Why do we need to strengthen climate adaptations? Scenarios and policy implications. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpwps/ecb.wp3005~35f938a452.en.pdf
• Climate Policy Initiative & Allianz. (2025, May). Urban adaptation & resilience finance workstream: Scoping paper. https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Adaptation-scoping-paper.pdf
• Barclays Private Bank. (2025, May 2). Assessing the risks of catastrophe bonds. https://privatebank.barclays.com/insights/assessing-the-risks-of-catastrophe-bonds-06-2025
• Springer. (2025). Bridging the adaptation finance gap: The role of nature-based solutions. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-025-01655-1
• International Monetary Fund. (2024). Unlocking adaptation finance in emerging markets and developing economies. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2024/11/02/Unlocking-Adaptation-Finance-in-Emerging-Markets-and-Developing-Economies-529741

Infrastructure as a Driver of Displacement

• HUD Office of Policy Development and Research. (2025). Infrastructure equity and displacement: Risk indicators and mitigation pathways. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/publications/infra-equity-displacement
• University of Miami Urban Resilience Institute. (2025, April). Stormwater upgrades and social stability: A study of Miami-Dade inland neighborhoods. https://www.urimiami.org/reports/stormwater-displacement
• NOAA Resilience Equity Mapping Project. (2025). Disparities in protective infrastructure: Flood risk, heat exposure, and census tract inequities. https://coast.noaa.gov/resilience-mapping
• FEMA Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities Program. (2025, June). 2025 BRIC grant review and equity impact summary. https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation/building-resilient-infrastructure-communities
• New York City Mayor’s Office of Resiliency. (2025, May). Resilience Atlas: Displacement risk forecasting and zoning overlays. https://www.nyc.gov/resilience-atlas
• Rotterdam Municipality. (2025). Resilience by Design: 2025 update to social impact criteria. https://www.rotterdam.nl/resilience-by-design-2025
• Singapore Urban Redevelopment Authority. (2025). Climate Resilience Guidelines: Equity and displacement metrics. https://www.ura.gov.sg/Corporate/Planning/Climate-Resilience-Guidelines
• Urban Institute. (2025, March). Adaptation infrastructure and spatial exclusion: A multi-city analysis. https://www.urban.org/research/publication/adaptation-infrastructure
• National Adaptation Property Index (NAPI). (2025). Quarterly report: Land value change near resilience corridors. https://www.napi.org/q2-2025-report
• City of Los Angeles Department of City Planning. (2025). Resilience zoning overlay amendments and right-of-return ordinances. https://planning.lacity.org/resilience-overlay-right-of-return

Private Adaptation and the New Geography of Climate Protection

• National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2025, April). Microgrids could enhance grid resilience. https://www.nrel.gov/news/detail/program/2025/microgrids-could-enhance-grid-resilience
• Utility Dive. (2025, April 15). Why microgrids are the key to grid resilience. https://www.utilitydive.com/news/microgrids-grid-resilience-cybersecurity-ameresco/745287
• Wood Mackenzie. (2025, June). US Microgrid Outlook 2025. https://www.woodmac.com/reports/power-markets-us-microgrid-outlook-2025-150377504
• U.S. Department of Defense. (2024). 2024–2027 Department of Defense Climate Adaptation Plan. https://www.sustainability.gov/pdfs/dod-2024-cap.pdf
• U.S. Department of Defense. (2024, October 7). Climate change resiliency a high DOD priority, deputy defense secretary says. https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/2630037/climate-change-resiliency-a-high-dod-priority-deputy-defense-secretary-says
• Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Environment & Energy Resilience. (2025). FY 2025 ERCIP program guidance. https://www.acq.osd.mil/eie/ero/ier/docs/ercip/FY2025-ERCIP-Program-Guidance.pdf
• Readiness and Environmental Protection Integration Program. (2025). FY 2025 REPI Challenge request for proposals. https://www.repi.mil/Portals/44/FY%202025_REPI_Challenge_RFP.pdf
• Houston Chronicle. (2025, January 14). Texas set aside $1.8 billion to establish reliable backup power. Why hasn’t the money been spent? https://www.houstonchronicle.com/opinion/editorials/article/texas-microgrid-freeze-power-outage-energy-fund-20027087.php
• Financial Times. (2025, May 23). Home microgrids: A blueprint for the future of sustainable household energy? https://www.ft.com/content/e8cb4f0e-7c66-4b48-aa27-9ddc908bc6d6
• Financial Times. (2024). BYOP: Americans bring their own power with outages on the rise. https://www.ft.com/content/038aeb5c-194e-4904-925f-a25720745290
• AP News. (2023, June). US announces $3.5B for projects nationwide to strengthen electric grid, bolster resilience. https://apnews.com/article/2dce477552c1056a2cf4e54519d97343

Systemic Imbalances, Sovereign Constraints, and Emerging Correctives

• Climate Vulnerable Forum & Henley & Partners. (2025, April). Climate finance report 2025. https://www.henleyglobal.com/newsroom/press-releases/climate-finance-report-2025
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2023, November). Scaling up adaptation finance in developing countries. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/11/scaling-up-adaptation-finance-in-developing-countries_4f4b0a0a/b0878862-en.pdf
• Global Center on Adaptation & Climate Policy Initiative. (2024). State and trends in climate adaptation finance 2024. https://gca.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/State-and-Trends-in-Climate-Adaptation-Finance-2024.pdf
• African Development Fund. (2023, October 23). Climate financing to Africa grows to US $44 billion in 2021/2022, still a quarter of needed funds. https://fsdafrica.org/new-report-finds-that-climate-financing-to-africa-grew-by-48-to-us44‑bn-in-2021-2022-but-still-only-a-quarter-of-what-is-required-to-realise-its-2030-goals/
• OECD. (2025, May). Development finance for least developed countries: Focus on climate change adaptation. https://www.oecd.org/en/data/insights/data‑explainers/2025/05/development‑finance‑for‑least‑developed‑countries‑ldcs‑focus‑on‑climate‑change‑adaptation.html
• UNEP. (2023, November). Adaptation Gap Report 2023: Underfinanced. Underprepared. https://www.unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Finance_Gap_Update.pdf
• World Resources Institute. (2025, February). Climate finance progress 2025. https://www.wri.org/insights/climate-finance-progress-2025
• UNFCCC. (2024, June). Doubling adaptation finance: Efforts to respond to the call of the Glasgow Climate Pact. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Doubling%20Adaptation%20Finance_Efforts%20to%20Respond%20to%20the%20Call%20of%20the%20Glasgow%20Climate%20Pact.pdf
• OECD. (2020, November). Climate finance: One-fifth of climate finance goes to adaptation. https://www.climatechangenews.com/2020/11/06/oecd-one-fifth-climate-finance-goes-adaptation-share-loans-grows/
• World Economic Forum. (2025, June). Can the private sector plug the adaptation finance gap? https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/06/can-the-private-sector-plug-the-adaptation-finance-gap/